Critical Theory and the Digital. David M.Berry (2014). Bloomsbury Academic
ISBN 9781501310966
Introduction
In the Introduction to Critical Theory and the Digital, David M. Berry explores how the "computational turn" has fundamentally reshaped our social, political, and cultural landscapes. He argues that we have moved beyond a period where digital technology was a separate "tool" and have entered an era where it is the very fabric of our reality, necessitating a renewed focus on Critical Theory to understand these changes.
The Computational Turn and Mediality
Berry posits that digital technologies are no longer just mediums for communication but have become "ontological" in nature—they define what exists and how we interact with it. This shift is characterized by mediality, where the digital infrastructures (code, algorithms, and networks) act as invisible layers that structure human experience. He emphasizes that to understand modern society, we must look "under the hood" of these digital systems to see how they prescribe certain ways of thinking and acting.
The Crisis of the Humanities
A central theme of the Introduction is the challenge the digital poses to the traditional humanities. Berry suggests that the humanities must transition into the Digital Humanities, not just by using digital tools for research, but by critically analyzing the digital itself as a cultural form. He argues that the traditional methods of the humanities are often ill-equipped to deal with the sheer scale and complexity of "Big Data" and algorithmic logic.
Reclaiming Critical Theory
Berry calls for a "Critical Theory of the Digital" that draws on the tradition of the Frankfurt School (e.g., Adorno, Horkheimer, and Marcuse). He believes that just as earlier critical theorists analyzed how the "culture industry" and "instrumental reason" dominated society, modern theorists must analyze how computational reason and algorithmic governmentality now perform similar functions. The goal is to:
• Unmask the "Neutrality" of Code: Reveal that algorithms are not objective but are embedded with specific values, biases, and power structures.
• Analyze Datafication: Understand how the reduction of human life into "bits" and "data points" leads to new forms of surveillance and control.
• Promote Reflexivity: Encourage individuals to become aware of how digital systems shape their subjectivity and social relations.
Software and Code as Culture
The Introduction emphasizes that software should be treated as a primary object of study. Berry argues that code is a form of "frozen" social logic that executes and enforces specific norms. By studying code, we can understand the "grammar" of the digital age. He suggests that being "digitally literate" now requires more than just knowing how to use a computer; it requires an understanding of the underlying logic and the ability to critique it.
In summary, Berry’s Introduction sets the stage for a deep investigation into how the digital age demands a new critical vocabulary. He argues that we must move from a passive "culture of participation" to a more active, critical engagement with the computational structures that now govern our lives.
Chapter 1
In David M. Berry’s Critical Theory and the Digital, Chapter 1 functions as both an introduction to the book's core philosophy and a pedagogical foundation for the reader. It is titled "Introduction" in the table of contents but serves as a substantial opening chapter that grounds the digital age in the historical tradition of the Frankfurt School.
Here is a summary of the key arguments and themes from Chapter 1:
1. The Pedagogy of Critical Theory
Berry begins by outlining the history of the Institute for Social Research (the Frankfurt School) and its key figures: Adorno, Horkheimer, and Marcuse. He argues that their work on "instrumental reason"—where logic and efficiency become tools of social control—is more relevant than ever in the age of algorithms. This chapter serves to "re-articulate" these old concepts to show they aren't just historical relics but are essential for analyzing modern digital power.
2. The Digital as an "Empty Signifier"
A major theoretical point in this chapter is Berry's critique of the term "digital" itself. He suggests that:
• The word "digital" is often used as a descriptive, ahistorical term that hides its ideological nature.
• By treating the digital as "neutral," we fail to see how it is a product of capitalist restructuring.
• We must historicize the digital to understand how it has been deployed to enforce specific economic and social norms.
3. The Dialectic of Digital Power
Berry introduces a "dialectic" framework for understanding technology. He suggests that digital code is caught between two poles:
• Democratizing Power: The potential for open access, collaboration, and the "commons."
• Totalizing Power: The tendency for digital systems to monitor, quantify, and control every aspect of human life (reification).
4. Beyond the "Screenic"
Berry critiques our tendency to focus only on what we see on the screen (the "screenic"). He argues that this surface-level view prevents us from seeing the materiality of code. To truly understand digital culture, we must move past the interface and analyze the underlying software architecture that prescribes how we act and think.
5. Computationality as Ideology
The chapter introduces the concept of computationality as a new dominant ideology. Berry explains that we are reaching a point where we are increasingly unable to think outside the limits of "the computational." This creates a "totalizing effect" where everything—from friendship to labor—is reduced to data points that can be processed by an algorithm.
Chapter 2
In Chapter 2, titled "From Culture Industry to Computational Industries," Berry updates the classic Frankfurt School concept of the "Culture Industry" (originally proposed by Adorno and Horkheimer) to address the specific realities of the digital age.
The core argument is that we have moved from a society dominated by mass-media broadcast (TV, Radio, Film) to one dominated by computational industries (Google, Facebook, Amazon, etc.), where the "product" is no longer just content, but the user's data and cognitive processes.
1. The Evolution of the Culture Industry
In the 20th century, the Culture Industry produced standardized cultural goods to create a passive, predictable public. Berry argues that the Computational Industry does this more effectively by:
• Individualization: Instead of one-size-fits-all mass media, algorithms create a "personalized" experience that still leads to social conformity.
• Predictive Control: Computational industries don't just reflect our tastes; they use "Big Data" to predict and steer our future behavior.
2. Algorithmic Ideology
Berry explores how algorithms function as a form of "hidden" ideology. Unlike a political speech, an algorithm presents its decisions as "mathematical" and therefore "neutral." Berry argues this is a myth:
• Algorithms are designed with specific economic goals (profit maximization).
• They enforce a "Computational Logic" that prizes efficiency, speed, and quantification over human values like reflection and historical context.
3. The Shift to "Real-Time" Culture
A significant portion of the chapter discusses the shift from "static" media to "real-time" streams.
• The Stream: We no longer consume discrete "works" of art or news; we live in a continuous flow of data (social media feeds, stock tickers).
• Cognitive Capture: This real-time nature demands our constant attention, leading to what Berry calls "the frantic disorientation of computational society."
4. Datafication and Labor
Berry highlights how the Computational Industry has turned "leisure" into "labor." Whenever we browse, like, or search, we are producing the raw material (data) that fuels these industries.
• The Prosumer: The boundary between producer and consumer has collapsed.
• Exploitation: Users provide free labor that is then sold back to advertisers, creating a new form of digital capital accumulation.
Key Takeaway
If the old Culture Industry was about mass deception, the new Computational Industry is about mass computation. Power is no longer just about controlling what people see; it’s about controlling the mathematical structures that determine what is possible to see.
Chapter 3
In Chapter 3, titled "The Softwarization of Society," David M. Berry shifts the focus from the broad "industry" level to the specific material power of software and code. He argues that we no longer just live with computers; we live in a society where the very "rules" of social life are being rewritten as software instructions.
1. Defining "Softwarization"
Berry uses the term "softwarization" to describe a process where traditional social, economic, and political institutions are replaced or managed by software systems.
• The Cyberstructure: He argues that software creates a new kind of "infrastructure" for reality—a cyberstructure. Unlike physical infrastructure (like roads), this digital infrastructure is dynamic, opaque, and constantly updating.
• Delegation: We "delegate" human tasks (like sorting information, judging creditworthiness, or even selecting romantic partners) to code. Once delegated, these processes become "black boxes" that are difficult to challenge or critique.
2. Software as the "New Common Sense"
Berry explores how software logic becomes our "default" way of thinking.
• The Grid of Numbers: To be processed by software, the messy reality of human life must be translated into a "grid of numbers." This forces us to quantify everything—our health (steps taken), our popularity (likes), and our productivity.
• Prescriptive Power: Software doesn't just describe the world; it prescribes it. It sets limits on what you can do (e.g., a "grayed out" button in an app is a hard rule that you cannot break).
3. Financialization and Software
A key case study in this chapter is the relationship between finance and software. Berry explains how the 2008 financial crisis was partially a "software crisis."
• Algorithmic Trading: In modern finance, software agents trade with each other at speeds humans cannot perceive.
• Loss of Control: When society’s core functions (like the economy) are "softwarized," they can experience "flash crashes" or systemic failures that occur too fast for human intervention.
4. The "Standing Reserve" of Data
Drawing on the philosopher Martin Heidegger, Berry discusses how software treats the world as a "standing reserve" of data.
• People are no longer seen as individuals with agency, but as "data-points" to be optimized, stored, and used.
• This leads to alienation, as we become alienated from our own digital "shadows"—the versions of ourselves that exist in databases and determine our opportunities in the real world.
Key Takeaway
Chapter 3 argues that software is not "neutral code" but a form of governance. It suggests that the most important "laws" of modern society are not written by legislatures, but by software engineers. To be a critical citizen today, one must be able to "read" and critique the code that structures our lives.
Chapter 4
In Chapter 4, titled "Computational Ontologies," Berry moves into the deeply philosophical territory of ontology—the study of being and what "is." He argues that the digital is not just changing what we do, it is changing our very understanding of what it means to exist.
1. The Shift to "Digital Ontology"
Berry argues that we are moving away from a world of stable "objects" toward a world of "informational patterns."
• Being as Bit: In a computational ontology, something is considered "real" or "knowable" only if it can be represented as data. If it cannot be quantified, it effectively ceases to exist in the eyes of the system.
• The Death of the "Thing": Instead of solid things, we now interact with "streams" and "processes." For example, a "song" is no longer a physical record but an ephemeral stream of bits.
2. Algorithmic "Ordering" of Reality
Berry explores how algorithms act as the new "gatekeepers" of reality. He describes this as a process of ordering:
• The Filtered World: We do not see the "world as it is"; we see the world as it has been sorted, ranked, and filtered for us by search engines and social media feeds.
• The Prescriptive Nature of Reality: Because algorithms decide what information is visible, they effectively "create" reality for the user. If an event doesn't trend or appear in a feed, for many, it didn't happen.
3. The "Stack" and Layers of Being
Berry uses the concept of the "Computational Stack" to explain how reality is now layered. This is a helpful way to visualize how different levels of technology interact to create our experience.
• Material Layer: The physical servers, cables, and energy.
• Logical Layer: The code and protocols.
• Phenomenal Layer: What the user actually sees and interacts with.
• Berry’s Point: We usually only live at the "top" layer, but our "being" is actually being shaped by the logic of the lower layers (the code and hardware) which remain invisible to us.
4. Loss of the "Human Scale"
A major concern in this chapter is the loss of the "human scale" of time and space.
• Micro-Time: Computers operate in nanoseconds—speeds the human brain cannot comprehend.
• Extensive Space: Digital networks ignore physical distance.
• The Result: This creates a sense of alienation, where the systems governing our lives operate at a scale that is fundamentally "anti-human" or "post-human."
Key Takeaway
Chapter 4 argues that we are being "re-coded." We are no longer just individuals; we are "dividuals"—bundles of data that are constantly being shifted and reassembled by computational systems. This chapter challenges us to ask: What is left of the "human" when everything is reduced to information?
Would you like a summary of Chapter 5: Digital Humanities and the Critical Theory of the Digital, where Berry looks at how academics and students can actually fight back or study these systems?
Chapter 5
In Chapter 5, titled "The Reification of Everyday Life," Berry applies the Marxist and Frankfurt School concept of "reification" (treating people and social relations as "things") to our modern digital existence. He argues that the digital world has created a "mechanized" form of reification that is more pervasive than anything Adorno or Horkheimer could have imagined.
1. Digital Reification: Turning Life into Objects
Reification traditionally refers to the process where human qualities are turned into "thing-like" properties to be bought and sold. Berry updates this for the 21st century:
• The Quantified Self: Every action we take—a "like," a search, a GPS coordinate—is a moment where our lived experience is "frozen" into a digital object (a data point).
• Thing-ification of Relationships: Our social networks are no longer organic communities but are structured as "graphs" and "nodes." Friends become assets or data sources for the platforms we use.
2. The Technologies of Capture
Berry goes into detail about the specific technical tools that facilitate this reification. He discusses "Reification Technologies" such as:
• Web Bugs and Beacons: Hidden snippets of code that track users across the internet without their consent.
• Trackers and Cookies: These tools ensure that we are always "legible" to the system, turning our private browsing into a public, commodified resource.
• Computational Surveillance: This is not just about state spying; it is the fundamental business model of the internet, where our very "everydayness" is captured and processed.
3. The Power of "Patterns"
A key section of this chapter focuses on how computational systems use Pattern Recognition.
• From Cause to Correlation: Digital systems don't care why you do something; they only care about the pattern of your behavior.
• The "Truth-Machine": Berry argues that we have delegated "truth" to algorithms. Because these patterns are mathematical, we tend to trust them more than human judgment, leading to a world where "the computer says no" becomes an unchallengeable reality.
4. The Loss of the "Inner Life"
By constantly being monitored and having our behavior "optimized" by software, Berry suggests we lose our capacity for reflexivity (thinking about our own thinking).
• When a streaming service tells you what to watch next based on a pattern, it bypasses your own critical decision-making process.
• This creates a "spectatorial condition" where we are passive observers of our own digital lives, rather than active participants.
Key Takeaway
Chapter 5 warns that when everyday life becomes "softwarized," it becomes a site of constant extraction. We are no longer subjects who use technology; we are the objects produced by it. To resist this, Berry argues we must learn to recognize these patterns of reification and find ways to "glitch" or disrupt the smooth functioning of these systems.
Would you like to continue to Chapter 6: Computational Aesthetics, which explores how the digital changes our ideas of beauty and art?
Explaining Critical Infrastructure
In this video, David Berry discusses the importance of "explainability" in algorithms, which is a key part of his argument for a Critical Digital Humanities that can challenge the "black box" systems of modern life.
Chapter 6
In Chapter 6, titled "Computational Aesthetics," Berry examines how digital technology is not just a medium for art, but a force that fundamentally alters our perception of beauty, creativity, and the "sensible" world. He moves from the logic of software to the way that logic feels and looks.
1. The "New Aesthetic" and the Grain of Computation
Berry discusses the concept of the New Aesthetic—a term used to describe the "bleeding" of digital logic into the physical world.
• Seeing like a Machine: This aesthetic is characterized by satellite imagery, pixelated patterns on physical objects, and the "glitch."
• The Grain of the Digital: Just as a woodcarver works with the "grain" of the wood, modern artists and designers now work with the "grain" of computation. We see this in the intentional use of low-res graphics or "retro" digital filters.
2. From Representation to Presentation
Historically, art was about representing the world. Berry argues that computational aesthetics is about presentation and generation:
• Generative Art: Algorithms don't just "show" an image; they calculate it in real-time. The "art" is the code itself, which can produce infinite variations.
• The Death of the "Work": In a digital context, the idea of a finished, static masterpiece is replaced by the "version" or the "stream." The aesthetic experience is ongoing and constantly updating.
3. Data Visualization as Aesthetic
One of the most important parts of this chapter is Berry's critique of Data Visualization (like infographics or interactive maps).
• The Seduction of Clarity: Berry warns that beautiful data visualizations can be dangerous. Because they look clean and "objective," we forget that they are highly filtered, political interpretations of data.
• Reification of Information: A map like Google Maps isn't just a tool; it's an aesthetic experience that makes the world look "ordered" and "knowable," hiding the messy reality and the corporate interests behind the data.
4. The Post-Digital Condition
Berry introduces the idea of the Post-Digital. This doesn't mean the digital is over; it means the digital is so pervasive that it's no longer "new."
• Seamlessness vs. Rupture: Computational aesthetics often tries to be "seamless" (like the smooth interface of an iPhone). Berry argues that critical art should instead aim for rupture—using glitches or "broken" code to remind the viewer that there is a machine behind the curtain.
• Tactility: He explores how we are seeing a return to the "analog" (like vinyl records or film photography) as a reaction against the perfect, friction-less aesthetic of the computational.
Key Takeaway
Chapter 6 argues that our taste and our sense of "what looks right" are being trained by software. To maintain a critical perspective, we must learn to see the politics of the interface. We need to look for the "glitches" that reveal how computational power is shaping our sensory experience.
Would you like the final summary of Chapter 7: Critical Praxis and the Computational, which discusses how we can actually change our relationship with these systems?
Chapter 7
In Chapter 7, titled "Critical Praxis and the Computational," Berry concludes the book by moving from theory to action. Having spent the previous chapters diagnosing the "totalizing" power of the digital, he now asks: What can we actually do about it?
He proposes a form of Critical Praxis—a way of engaging with technology that is neither purely technophobic nor blindly technophilic.
1. Digital Literacy as Political Resistance
Berry argues that standard "digital literacy" (simply knowing how to use apps or devices) is insufficient. Instead, he calls for a deep digital literacy that involves:
• Reading Code: Understanding that code is a language of power. If we cannot read the "laws" written in software, we cannot participate in democracy.
• Computational Thinking: Learning the logic of the systems so that we can spot when that logic is being used to manipulate or "reify" us.
2. The Role of the Digital Humanities (DH)
Berry sees the Digital Humanities as a primary site for this praxis. He suggests that DH should not just be about "using computers to study books," but should be a critical project that:
• Builds its own tools rather than relying on corporate software.
• Uses "Small Data" and "Slow Computing" to counter the frantic, profit-driven logic of "Big Data."
• Promotes reflexivity, constantly questioning how the digital tools we use are shaping the research results we find.
3. "Tactical" Computing and Glitching
Drawing on the concept of Tactical Media, Berry suggests that we can resist computational power through "glitches" and disruptions:
• Obfuscation: Intentionally producing "noisy" data to confuse tracking algorithms.
• Reverse Engineering: Taking apart corporate software to reveal the biases and values hidden inside the "black box."
• Counter-Mapping: Using data visualization to tell stories of the marginalized, rather than the stories of the powerful.
4. Reclaiming the Commons
A major part of the praxis involves moving away from "Computational Industries" and toward a Digital Commons.
• Free and Open Source Software (FOSS): Berry emphasizes the political importance of software that is transparent and community-owned.
• Public Infrastructures: He argues that we need digital spaces that are treated like public parks or libraries, rather than shopping malls where every move is monitored for profit.
Key Takeaway
Chapter 7 is a call to move from Passive Participation to Active Interpretation. Berry argues that "praxis" in the digital age means becoming a "writer" of the digital world, not just a "reader." We must learn to intervene in the code itself to ensure that the Enlightenment values of freedom, autonomy, and critique survive the computational turn.
Chapter 8
In the final chapter of the book, Chapter 8, titled "Towards a Critical Theory of the Digital," David M. Berry synthesizes the arguments made throughout the text. Rather than just summarizing, he outlines the requirements for a future-facing Critical Theory that is specifically built for a world dominated by code.
1. The Necessity of a New Dialectic
Berry returns to the Dialectic of Enlightenment, arguing that we are in a new stage where the "Enlightenment" of digital connectivity has produced its own "Mythology" of data.
• The Paradox: While the digital offers potential for incredible human liberation (access to knowledge, global communication), it simultaneously creates a "totalizing" system of control and surveillance.
• The Goal: A true Critical Theory of the Digital must navigate this tension without falling into pure pessimism or techno-optimism.
2. Computational Reason vs. Reflective Thought
A major theme in this conclusion is the danger of Computational Reason. This is the belief that every problem in the world—poverty, health, education—has a "technical" or "algorithmic" solution.
• Berry warns that when we delegate our thinking to machines, we lose the ability to engage in normative thinking (asking "Is this right?") and instead only engage in functional thinking (asking "Does this work?").
• The final chapter urges us to reclaim "slow" human reflection against the "fast" logic of real-time computational streams.
3. The Concept of "The Computal"
Berry introduces (or reinforces) the term "The Computal" to describe the new historical epoch we are entering.
• Unlike "the digital," which sounds like a specific technology, "the computal" refers to a way of being where computation is the "ontological floor" of reality.
• He argues that we must develop a "Philosophy of the Computal" to understand how our very consciousness is being restructured by algorithmic environments.
4. Summary of the "Critical Project"
Berry concludes by listing the tasks for researchers, students, and citizens:
• Historicize the Digital: Never treat software as if it just "appeared" out of nowhere; always look at the economic and political history behind its creation.
• Expose the Black Boxes: Demand transparency in algorithms that affect public life (credit scores, policing, social media ranking).
• Foster "Iterative" Critique: Because software changes every day (updates, patches, new versions), our critique must also be constant and iterative. We cannot write one "final" book on the digital; we must keep pace with its evolution.
Final Takeaway of the Book
David M. Berry’s work is a warning that code is the new language of power. In the 20th century, we learned to critique the "Culture Industry" of movies and TV; in the 21st century, we must learn to critique the "Computational Industry" of algorithms and data. The book ends on a hopeful but urgent note: we can still shape the digital future, but only if we understand the logic that is currently shaping us.
Concepts and Terminology Summary
Core Concepts
• Computationality: The new dominant ideology where everything in the world is perceived and understood through the lens of computation. It is the belief that reality is essentially data that can be processed.
• The Computational Turn: The historical shift from technology being a specific "tool" used by humans to becoming the "environment" or "infrastructure" in which all human life now takes place.
• Mediality: The idea that digital systems are not neutral pipes for information, but active structures that shape how we think, communicate, and perceive time.
• Ontology of the Digital: The study of how the digital changes "being." In this view, something only "exists" if it is legible to a computer (e.g., if you don't have a digital identity or data trail, you are invisible to the system).
Social and Political Terms
• Softwarization: The process where social rules, laws, and institutional functions are "translated" into code. This often moves power away from public debate and into the hands of software engineers.
• Computational Industries: Berry’s update to the "Culture Industry." These are the massive platforms (Google, Meta, etc.) that don't just sell content, but capture and commodify human attention and data in real-time.
• Digital Reification: The process of turning lived human experiences, emotions, and relationships into "things" (data points) that can be bought, sold, and manipulated by algorithms.
• Algorithmic Governmentality: A form of "invisible" governance where algorithms steer human behavior toward certain outcomes (like clicking an ad or following a trend) without the person realizing they are being managed.
Technical and Aesthetic Frameworks
• The Stack: A way of visualizing the layers of digital reality, from the physical hardware (cables/servers) to the logical code, and finally the user interface. Berry argues we must look at the whole "stack" to understand power.
• Real-Time Stream: The shift from "static" media (books, films) to "flowing" media (social feeds, live tickers). This creates a sense of "frantic disorientation" and discourages deep, reflective thought.
• The New Aesthetic: The "bleeding" of digital logic into the physical world—where things in real life start to look like they were generated by a computer (e.g., pixelated patterns, satellite-view mapping).
• Black Box: A system where the inputs and outputs are visible, but the internal logic (the code) is hidden. Berry argues Critical Theory must "open the black box" to reveal the biases inside.
Tools for Resistance (Praxis)
• Deep Digital Literacy: Moving beyond "how to use" a computer to "how to read and critique" the logic of code and its social impact.
• Tactical Glitching: Intentionally disrupting the smooth, "seamless" experience of software to reveal its underlying mechanics and power structures.
• Digital Commons: The push for public, open-source, and transparent digital infrastructures that are not owned by private corporations.
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